61 The Epic of Gilgamesh, N. K. Sandars, trans. (N.Y., 1972), p. 33, hereafter Gilgamesh; For a more recent, literal translation see Dalley, Myths, pp. 50-153.

62 Gilgamesh, p. 71. For Armenian parallels to Humbaba see note 49 above. On the translation of erenu as "pine" rather than "cedar" see Dalley, Myths, p. 126 n. 20.

63 Gilgamesh, p. 77.

64 Gilgamesh, pp. 77-79.

65 Gilgamesh, pp. 83-84. The cut timber was sent down river to Mesopotamia by raft, Dalley, Myths, pp. 76-77, 84-85. This is the same method of transportation that Herodotus (History, Book I.194) described Armenians using in the 5th century B. C.

66 Gilgamesh, p. 83.

67 Gilgamesh, pp. 79-80.

68 Gilgamesh, p. 87. Ishtar tries to bribe Gilgamesh with a chariot of lapis lazuli and gold, driven by dragons, Dalley, Myths, p. 77. For other references to horse and chariot in this myth see ibid., pp. 78, 79, p. 129 n. 52. For references to metals and metallurgists, ibid., pp. 82, 93, 144.

69 Gilgamesh, p. 98.

70 Gilgamesh, p. 100.

71 Gilgamesh, p. 108.

72 Gilgamesh, p. 113.

73 Vahan Inglizian, Hayastan surb grk'i mej [Armenia in the Bible] (Vienna, 1947; Armenian trans. of his German doctoral dissertation), pp. 106-121; Dalley, Myths, pp. 1-8, 39-49.

74 Inglizian, pp. 122-24. The magical tunnel is identified with a rock tunnel two miles long which extends from Bylkalein to the main source of the Tigris river. C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, Armenien Einst und Jetzt I (Berlin, 1910), Chapter 14, "Der Tigris Tunnel."

75 Inglizian, pp. 132-33.

76 Inglizian, p. 117.

77 T. Howard-Carter, "The Tangible Evidence for the Earliest Dilmun," Journal of Cuneiform Studies vol. 33/3-4 (1981), pp. 210-223. Kramer, Sumerians, p. 281, who placed Dilmun in India observed that Dilmun's description as "the place where the sun rises" hardly fits Bahrain, which is south of Sumer. The passages of the Gilgamesh cited above also have certain connections to the Odyssey. Somewhere en route to Utnapishtim, Gilgamesh meets a Circe-like woman called Siduri ("barmaid") who urges Gilgamesh to turn back and to reconcile himself with his lot of mortality by drinking wine and enjoying life. Unable to dissuade him, this woman, like Circe, gives the hero instructions on traveling to the other world.

78 On the location of Aratta: S. Cohen, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta (Un. of Penn. Ph.D. dissertation, 1973 University Microfilms), pp. 13-24, 127; S. N. Kramer, The Sumerians (Chicago, 1963), p. 269 placed Aratta in northwestern Iran near the Caspian Sea; G. Gnoli, Zoroaster's Time and Homeland (Naples, 1980) identified Aratta with Shahr-i Suxta in southern Iran; M. Kavoukjian, Armenia, Subartu, and Sumer (Montreal, 1987), pp. 57-81 identified Aratta with the Metsamor metallurgical complex in the Ayrarat valley. Dalley, Myths, p. 129 n. 53 observes that the adjective arattu ("wonderfully wrought") originally meant "made in Aratta." It is noteworthy that the goddess Ishtar (herself connected to eastern Asia Minor) when trying to win Gilgamesh's love, offers him a golden chariot drawn by dragons, and a home with an arattu threshold, Dalley, p. 77.

79 Enmerkar, lines 25-87, pp. 113-16; lines 124-27, p. 118; lines 196-205, pp. 121-22; lines 281-93, p.126. The metals included gold, silver, copper, tin (lines 18, 196-99); timber included boxwood (lines 131, 203), cedar/cypress (line 401), pine (line 403) and poplar "the wood for chariots" (line 404), Cohen, pp. 131-32.

80 Enmerkar, lines 323-499, pp. 118-36; lines 500-505, pp. 136-37: "The emissary, his mouth (being) heavy, was not able to repeat (it). The lord of Kulaba patted clay and wrote the message like (on a present-day) tablet. Formerly, the writing of messages on clay was not established. Now, with [the sun god] Utu's bringing forth the day, verily, this was so." This myth also refers to the confusion of tongues, lines 150-55, p. 119.

81 S. N. Kramer, Sumerians, pp. 272-73.

82 Ibid., pp. 273-74.

83 Cohen, pp. 23-24. The timber cut by Gilgamesh and Enkidu was also transported south by boat, see note 65 above.

84 Kramer, Sumerians, pp. 275-76 places Mount Hurum "in the neighborhood of Lake Van."

85 R. T. O'Callaghan, Aram Naharaim (Rome, 1948), Analecta Orientalia #26, p.48.

86 I. M. Diakonoff, "Evidence on the Ethnic Division of the Hurrians", in Studies on the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians, M. A. Morrison, ed. (Winona Lake, Indiana, 1981), p. 82.

87 One myth, known as the "Song of the Kingship in Heaven," describes three aeons of succession before the triumph of Tessub, the weather god. First Alalu was king in heaven, served by Anu. Anu overthrew Alalu and was served by Kumarbi. Then Kumarbi overthrows Anu and castrates him: "(Kumarbi) bit his (Anu's) loins, and his 'manhood' united with Kumarbi's insides like bronze (results from the union of copper and tin). When Kumarbi had swallowed the 'manhood' of Anu, he rejoiced and laughed out loud. Anu turned around and spoke to Kumarbi: 'Are you rejoicing within yourself because you have swallowed my manhood? Stop rejoicing within yourself! I have placed inside you a burden. First, I have impregnated you with the noble Storm God (=Tessub). Second, I have impregnated you with the irresistible Tigris River. Third, I have impregnated you with the the noble Tasmisu," H. A. Hoffner, Jr., Hittite Myths (Atlanta, 1990), pp. 40-41. G. Wilhelm, The Hurrians (Wiltshire, England, 1989) pp. 59-60 writes: "There is no doubt about the parallels between the Hurrian myth of succession and the Theogony of Hesiod, the Greek poet living in Boeotia in about 700 B.C. Just as in the Hurrian myth Anu, the god of heaven, is castrated by his son Kumarbi, to be deposed in his turn by the weather god Teshup, so Kronos becomes ruler of the gods after the castration of his father, Uranus, god of heaven, only to be usurped by Zeus, the thunder god."

88 Hoffner, pp. 48-52, the "Song of Hedammu."

89 Ibid., pp. 53-54.

90 Ibid., p. 55. On the location of Mount Hazzi, Wilhelm writes: "...because of the reference to Mount Hazzi, we must imagine Ullikummi growing out of the Gulf of Iskenderun", p. 61 and "In Ugarit, Mount Sapan (ancient name: mons Casius, now Jabal al-Aqra, on the mouth of the Orontes) was thought to be the abode of Ba'al. In the Hittite-Hurrian world it was deified under the name of Hazzi and became one of Tessub's satellites, along with the still unidentified Mount Namni", p. 50. But see Diakonoff "Evidence", p. 81 n. 17: "Ha-zi, Ha-az-ai is the Hurrian name of Mount Sapanu which means 'North'; presumably that is also the meaning of the Hurrian word." If Diakonoff's presumption is correct, then the mountain of Hazzi may have been located north of Lake Van, perhaps Suphan whose legends and even name may have migrated to the southwest. It is noteworthy that early Greek mythographers placed the destruction of Typhoeus (whom some equate with Ullikummi, W. Burkert, "Oriental and Greek Mythology", pp. 16, 20) in the "land of the Arimi."

91 Hoffner, pp. 56-57.

92 Ibid., p. 59; For parallels to the Greek myths of Typhoes, see W. Burkert, "Oriental and Greek Mythology", pp. 19-24; for Caucasian parallels, see the same author's "Von Ullikummi zum Kaukasus: Die Felsgeburt des Unholds", Wurzburger Jahrbucher N. F., 5(1979), pp. 253-61.

93 Hoffner, p. 62.